‘Women Always Drew the Short Straw’: Military Power and Sexual Exploitation in the American Occupation of Koblenz, 1918-1923
Abstract
For four years after the armistice in World War I, from December 1918 to January 1923, the Americans occupied the German Rhineland along with the British, Belgians, and the French. The focus for the American Zone was the small city of Koblenz, important for its control of the meeting point between the Rhine and Mosel rivers. The occupation was significant for the army, despite the deployment having rapidly dropped to less than 10,000 soldiers. American forces had never before served as part of an international coalition and it was the first time they occupied territory of another great power. Yet, American involvement in the Rhineland has received little devoted scholarly attention. Drawing comparisons to the social unrest and political upheaval in the other Allies’ zones, historians have often described the American occupation as “benign.” Along with the comparatively small scale of the operation, this framing has diminished its importance to the post-World War I narrative. Likewise, the social dynamics resulting from occupation and their salience to a history of American military government have been largely overlooked. Using newly uncovered documents, this article explores these dynamics through the lens of soldiers’ sexual relations with Germans. In so doing, it reveals the heretofore hidden plight of women subjected to a complex sexualized environment, which reflected martial power structures, dominant patriarchy, and economic desperation.
References
Primary Sources
City Archives of Koblenz (Stadarchiv Koblenz – StAK)
American News Company, “Sehr geehrter Herr Oberbürgermeister!” 7 March 1929, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4635, Doc. 11.
Army of the United States, “Charge Sheet: Jean Weitzel,” 4 April 1922, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4739, Doc. 6.
Brandt, “Betrifft: Rechtsstellung deutscher Frauen alliierter Militärpersonen,” 6 October 1921, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 5525, Doc. 328.
“Der Polizei – Inspektor,” 22 December 1920, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5534, Doc. 120.
Downs, S. D. “Deputy Burgermeister, Coblenz; (Through, The Kreis Representative I.A.R.H.C., Coblenz),” 19 January 1922, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4588, Doc. 287.
Fieker, Theodore F. “Plea for Adalbert Schuster,” May 5, 1922, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4579, Doc. 43.
“German Girls Warned to Have Dot if Wedding Our Soldiers,” 13 September (unknown year between 1919-1922), Loose in: StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4588.
“Herrn Oberbürgermeister,” 16 June 1920, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4738, Doc. 17.
Janssen, “Abschrift,” 29 April 1919, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 5525, Doc 497.
McLean, Henry C. On behalf of the Office of the Provost Marshal, “Bericht an den: Überwacher der deutschen Polizei Lieut. Dodd,” 9 December 1920, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5534, Doc. 120.
Mokittrick, William K. “Memorandum: To Commissioner Neuman – German Police,” 29 March 1920, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5534, Doc. 83.
“Re: 1. Use of Stool Pigeons. 2. Prosecution of German Citizens by American Military Police for Alleged Offenses Committed Outside of the American Area,” 8 February 1921, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5103, Docs. 133-135.
Russell, Karl. “Re: Supervision of German Police,” 9 January 1921, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5103, Docs. 136-137.
Russell, Karl. “Re: Opinion on Dance-Halls,” 31 March 1921, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 5103, Docs. 19-22.
Russell, Karl. “Die Stadt Koblenz in der amerikanischen Besatzungszeit,” n.d. (presumed February 1929), StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4635, Docs. 1-10.
Sargent, William H. “Subject: Marriage,” 9 December 1921, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4588, Docs. 283-284.
Schwink, “To: Colonel David L. Stone, I.A.R.H.C.,” 10 March 1922, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4737, Doc. 13.
Schwink, “To: Kreis Representative, Capt. Theodore F. Fieker, Coblenz,” 11 April 1922, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4577, Doc. 21.
Schwink, “To: Kreis-Representative, I.A.R.H.C., Captain Fieker, Coblenz,” 27 September 1922, Best. 623, Nr. 4736, Docs. 18-20.
Schwink, “To: The Kreis Representative, IARHC., Captain Theodore F. Fieker, Coblenz,” 17 November 1922, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4739, Doc. 25.
“Übersetzung,” 22 April 1919, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5525, Docs. 22-23.
Wirtz, “Response,” 15 December 1921, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4588, Doc. 285.
US National Archives, College Park Maryland (NACP)
A. C. of S., G-4, A.F.G., “Report of Activities, General Staff, for May 1920,” 7 June 1920, NACP, RG 120, Entry NM-91 1313, Box 12.
Assistant Chief of Staff, American Forces in Germany, “Annual Report of Operations for Fiscal Year Ending 30 June 1920,” 3 November 1920, NACP, RG 120, Entry NM-91 1313, Box 2.
Capra, Frank, Theodor Geisel, John Beal, Dimitri Tiomkin, “Your Job in Germany, 1945,” 1945, NACP, RG 111: Records of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer, 1860 – 1985111-OF-8, Reel 1 & 2. Avail: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=821R0lGUL6A [Accessed: 22 March 2018].
School of Military Government, University of Virginia Archives
Paul Shipman Andrews, “Course VII, Class III, Liaison – Preliminary”, 16 January 1943, University of Virginia Archives, School of Military Government Records, RG-6/34/1.131 Box 2 (47121).
Reports
Hunt, Irvin L. American Military Government of Occupied Germany 1918-1920. Report of the Officer in Charge of Civil Affairs, Third Army and American Forces in Germany. Washington DC, 1943.
Smith, H. A. Military Government. Fort Leavenworth, KS: The General Service Schools Press, 1920.
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Allen, Ann Taylor. “Feminism, Venereal Disease, and the State in Germany, 1890-1918,” Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1993), 27-50.
Allen, Henry T. The Rhineland Occupation. Brooklyn, NY: Braunworth, 1927.
Antoniazzi, Barbara. The Wayward Woman: Progressivism, Prostitution, and Performance in the United States, 1888-1917. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2014.
Art, Robert J. A Grand Strategy for America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003.
Barnes, Alexander F. “‘Representative of a Victorious People’: The Doughboy Watch on the Rhine,” Army History, Vol. 77 (2010), 6-19.
Barnes, Alexander F. In a Strange Land: The American Occupation of Germany, 1918-1923. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military History, 2011.
Bellamy, Alex J. Massacres & Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Best, Geoffrey. Humanity in Warfare. The Modern History of the International Law of Armed Conflicts. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980.
Bidwell, Robin Leonard, Currency Conversion Tables: A Hundred Years of Change. London: Rex Collings, 1970.
Boak, Helen. Women in the Weimar Republic. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013.
Boehling, Rebecca. A Question of Priorities. Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany. Frankfurt, Munich, and Stuttgart under US Occupation 1945-1949. New York: Berghahn Books, 1996.
Bry, Gerhard and Charlotte Boshan. Wages in Germany, 1871-1945. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960.
Canoy, Jose Raymund. The Discreet Charm of the Police State: The Landpolizei and the Transformation of Bavaria, 1945-1965. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
Carruthers, Susan L. The Good Occupation: American Soldiers and the Hazards of Peace. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016.
Carter, Mitzi Uehara. “Nappy Routes and Tangled Tales: Critical Ethnography in a Militarized Okinawa,” in Under Occupation: Resistance and Struggle in a Militarized Asia-Pacific, edited by Daviel Broudy, Peter Simpson, and Makoto Arakaki. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013, 8-28.
Chapman, Brian. Police State. London: Pall Mall Press, 1970.
De Castelbajac, Matthieu. “Brooding Over the Dark Figure of Crime: The Home Office and the Cambridge Institute of Criminology in the Run-up to the British Crime Survey,” British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 54, No. 5 (2014), 928-945.
Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census, Official Register of the United States 1926: Containing a List of Persons Occupying Administrative and Supervisory Positions in Each Executive and Judicial Department of the Government including the District of Columbia. Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1926.
Denison, Benjamin. “Strategies of Domination: Uncertainty, Local Institutions, and the Politics of Foreign Rule,” 2017 Harvard International Security Conference, 28 September 2017.
DiMarco, Louis A. “Restoring Order: The US Army Experience with Occupation Operations, 1865-1952.” PhD Dissertation: Kansas State University, 2010.
Edelstein, David M. “Occupational Hazards: Why Military Occupations Succeed or Fail”, International Security, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Summer, 2004), 49-91.
Edelstein, David M. Occupational Hazards: Success and Failure in Military Occupation. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008.
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Evans, Richard J. “Prostitution, State, and Society in Imperial Germany,” Past & Present, No. 70 (1976), 106-129.
Faigman, David L. “The Battered Woman Syndrome and Self-Defense: A Legal and Empirical Dissent,” Virginia Law Review, Vol. 72, No. 3 (1986), 619-647.
Fischer, Conan. The Ruhr Crisis, 1923-1924. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Fraenkel, Ernst. Military Occupation and the Rule of Law: Occupation Government in the Rhineland, 1918-1923. London: Oxford University Press, 1944.
Gabriel, Ralph H. “American Experience with Military Government,” The American Historical Review, Vol. 49, No. 4 (1944), 630-643.
Gebhardt, Miriam. Crimes Unspoken: The Rape of German Women at the End of the Second World War. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2017.
Hartigan, Richard Shelly. Lieber’s Code and the Law of War. Chicago: Transaction Publishers, 1995.
Henke, Klaus-Dietmar. Die amerikanische Besetzung Deutschlands. München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1995.
Hudson, Walter M. Army Diplomacy: American Military Occupation and Foreign Policy after World War II. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 2015.
“Irvin Leland Hunt”, The Hall of Valor Project. Avail: https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/17720 [Accessed: 4 September 2018].
Jackson, Simon and A. Dirk Moses. “Transformative Occupations in the Modern Middle East,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2017), 231-246.
Kehoe, Thomas J. “Control, Disempowerment, Fear, and Fantasy: Violent Criminality During the Early American Occupation of Germany, March-July 1945”, Australian Journal of Politics & History, Vol. 62, No. 4 (2016), 566-570.
Kehoe, Thomas J. and E. James Kehoe, “Crimes Committed by US Soldiers in Europe 1945-1946,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Summer 2016), 53-84
Kehoe, Thomas J. and E. James Kehoe, “A Reply to Robert Dykstra’s ‘Evident Bias in Crimes Committed by US Soldiers in Europe 1945-1946’,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Winter 2017), 385-396.
Kovner, Sarah. Occupying Power: Sex Workers and Servicemen in Postwar Japan. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012.
Kuhlman, Erika. “American Doughboys and German Fräuleins: Sexuality, Patriarchy, and Privilege in the American-Occupied Rhineland, 1918-1923,” The Journal of Military History, Vol. 71, No. 4 (2007), 1077-1106.
Langum, David J. Crossing Over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994.
Lilly, Robert. Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe During World War II. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
Linn, Brian McAllister. Guardians of Empire: The US Army and the Pacific, 1902 1940. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1997.
Linn, Brian McAllister. The Echo of Battle: The Army’s Way of War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
Marcuse, Harold. “Historical Dollars-to-Marks Currency Conversion Page.” Avail: http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/projects/currency.htm [Accessed: 8 September 2018].
McClelland, Mark. “‘Kissing Is A Symbol of Democracy!’ Dating, Democracy, and Romance in Occupied Japan, 1945-1952,” Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 19, No. 3 (2010), 508-535.
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Mueller, David A. “Civil Order and Governance as Military Responsibilities,” Joint Force Quarterly, Vol. 84 (2017), 43-50.
Nelson, Keith L. “The ‘Black Horror on the Rhine’: Race as a Factor in Post-World War I Diplomacy,” The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 42, No. 4 (Dec., 1970), 606-627.
Nelson, Keith L. Victors Divided: America and the Allies in Germany, 1918-1923. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975.
Nhan, Johnny. “Police Culture,” in The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, edited by J. S. Albanese. Avail: doi:10.1002/9781118517383.wbeccj371 [Accessed: 7 September 2018].
Pawley, Margaret. The Watch on the Rhine: The Military Occupation of the Rhineland, 1918-1930. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
Pivar, David J. “Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917-21,” Prologue, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1980), 29-40.
Roos, Julia. “Nationalism, Racism, and Propaganda in Early Weimar Germany: Contradictions in the Campaign Against the ‘Black Horror on the Rhine’,” German History, Vol. 30, No. 1 (2012), 45-74.
Scheck, Raffael. “Women on the Weimar Right: The Role of Female Politicians in the Deutschnationale Volkspartei (DNVP),” Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 36, No. 4 (2001), 547-560.
Seibold-Simpson, Susan M., Allison M. McKinnon, Richard E. Mattson, Edwin Ortiz, Ann M. Merriwether, Sean G. Massey, and Ian Chiu, “Person- and Incident-Level Predictors of Blame, Disclosure, and Reporting to Authorities in Rape Scenarios,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence (2018):
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City Archives of Koblenz (Stadarchiv Koblenz – StAK)
American News Company, “Sehr geehrter Herr Oberbürgermeister!” 7 March 1929, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4635, Doc. 11.
Army of the United States, “Charge Sheet: Jean Weitzel,” 4 April 1922, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4739, Doc. 6.
Brandt, “Betrifft: Rechtsstellung deutscher Frauen alliierter Militärpersonen,” 6 October 1921, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 5525, Doc. 328.
“Der Polizei – Inspektor,” 22 December 1920, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5534, Doc. 120.
Downs, S. D. “Deputy Burgermeister, Coblenz; (Through, The Kreis Representative I.A.R.H.C., Coblenz),” 19 January 1922, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4588, Doc. 287.
Fieker, Theodore F. “Plea for Adalbert Schuster,” May 5, 1922, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4579, Doc. 43.
“German Girls Warned to Have Dot if Wedding Our Soldiers,” 13 September (unknown year between 1919-1922), Loose in: StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4588.
“Herrn Oberbürgermeister,” 16 June 1920, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4738, Doc. 17.
Janssen, “Abschrift,” 29 April 1919, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 5525, Doc 497.
McLean, Henry C. On behalf of the Office of the Provost Marshal, “Bericht an den: Überwacher der deutschen Polizei Lieut. Dodd,” 9 December 1920, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5534, Doc. 120.
Mokittrick, William K. “Memorandum: To Commissioner Neuman – German Police,” 29 March 1920, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5534, Doc. 83.
“Re: 1. Use of Stool Pigeons. 2. Prosecution of German Citizens by American Military Police for Alleged Offenses Committed Outside of the American Area,” 8 February 1921, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5103, Docs. 133-135.
Russell, Karl. “Re: Supervision of German Police,” 9 January 1921, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5103, Docs. 136-137.
Russell, Karl. “Re: Opinion on Dance-Halls,” 31 March 1921, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 5103, Docs. 19-22.
Russell, Karl. “Die Stadt Koblenz in der amerikanischen Besatzungszeit,” n.d. (presumed February 1929), StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4635, Docs. 1-10.
Sargent, William H. “Subject: Marriage,” 9 December 1921, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4588, Docs. 283-284.
Schwink, “To: Colonel David L. Stone, I.A.R.H.C.,” 10 March 1922, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4737, Doc. 13.
Schwink, “To: Kreis Representative, Capt. Theodore F. Fieker, Coblenz,” 11 April 1922, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4577, Doc. 21.
Schwink, “To: Kreis-Representative, I.A.R.H.C., Captain Fieker, Coblenz,” 27 September 1922, Best. 623, Nr. 4736, Docs. 18-20.
Schwink, “To: The Kreis Representative, IARHC., Captain Theodore F. Fieker, Coblenz,” 17 November 1922, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 4739, Doc. 25.
“Übersetzung,” 22 April 1919, StAK, Best. 623, Nr. 5525, Docs. 22-23.
Wirtz, “Response,” 15 December 1921, StAK, Bt. 623, Nr. 4588, Doc. 285.
US National Archives, College Park Maryland (NACP)
A. C. of S., G-4, A.F.G., “Report of Activities, General Staff, for May 1920,” 7 June 1920, NACP, RG 120, Entry NM-91 1313, Box 12.
Assistant Chief of Staff, American Forces in Germany, “Annual Report of Operations for Fiscal Year Ending 30 June 1920,” 3 November 1920, NACP, RG 120, Entry NM-91 1313, Box 2.
Capra, Frank, Theodor Geisel, John Beal, Dimitri Tiomkin, “Your Job in Germany, 1945,” 1945, NACP, RG 111: Records of the Office of the Chief Signal Officer, 1860 – 1985111-OF-8, Reel 1 & 2. Avail: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=821R0lGUL6A [Accessed: 22 March 2018].
School of Military Government, University of Virginia Archives
Paul Shipman Andrews, “Course VII, Class III, Liaison – Preliminary”, 16 January 1943, University of Virginia Archives, School of Military Government Records, RG-6/34/1.131 Box 2 (47121).
Reports
Hunt, Irvin L. American Military Government of Occupied Germany 1918-1920. Report of the Officer in Charge of Civil Affairs, Third Army and American Forces in Germany. Washington DC, 1943.
Smith, H. A. Military Government. Fort Leavenworth, KS: The General Service Schools Press, 1920.
Secondary Sources
Allen, Ann Taylor. “Feminism, Venereal Disease, and the State in Germany, 1890-1918,” Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1993), 27-50.
Allen, Henry T. The Rhineland Occupation. Brooklyn, NY: Braunworth, 1927.
Antoniazzi, Barbara. The Wayward Woman: Progressivism, Prostitution, and Performance in the United States, 1888-1917. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2014.
Art, Robert J. A Grand Strategy for America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003.
Barnes, Alexander F. “‘Representative of a Victorious People’: The Doughboy Watch on the Rhine,” Army History, Vol. 77 (2010), 6-19.
Barnes, Alexander F. In a Strange Land: The American Occupation of Germany, 1918-1923. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Military History, 2011.
Bellamy, Alex J. Massacres & Morality: Mass Atrocities in an Age of Civilian Immunity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Best, Geoffrey. Humanity in Warfare. The Modern History of the International Law of Armed Conflicts. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980.
Bidwell, Robin Leonard, Currency Conversion Tables: A Hundred Years of Change. London: Rex Collings, 1970.
Boak, Helen. Women in the Weimar Republic. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013.
Boehling, Rebecca. A Question of Priorities. Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany. Frankfurt, Munich, and Stuttgart under US Occupation 1945-1949. New York: Berghahn Books, 1996.
Bry, Gerhard and Charlotte Boshan. Wages in Germany, 1871-1945. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960.
Canoy, Jose Raymund. The Discreet Charm of the Police State: The Landpolizei and the Transformation of Bavaria, 1945-1965. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
Carruthers, Susan L. The Good Occupation: American Soldiers and the Hazards of Peace. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2016.
Carter, Mitzi Uehara. “Nappy Routes and Tangled Tales: Critical Ethnography in a Militarized Okinawa,” in Under Occupation: Resistance and Struggle in a Militarized Asia-Pacific, edited by Daviel Broudy, Peter Simpson, and Makoto Arakaki. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013, 8-28.
Chapman, Brian. Police State. London: Pall Mall Press, 1970.
De Castelbajac, Matthieu. “Brooding Over the Dark Figure of Crime: The Home Office and the Cambridge Institute of Criminology in the Run-up to the British Crime Survey,” British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 54, No. 5 (2014), 928-945.
Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census, Official Register of the United States 1926: Containing a List of Persons Occupying Administrative and Supervisory Positions in Each Executive and Judicial Department of the Government including the District of Columbia. Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1926.
Denison, Benjamin. “Strategies of Domination: Uncertainty, Local Institutions, and the Politics of Foreign Rule,” 2017 Harvard International Security Conference, 28 September 2017.
DiMarco, Louis A. “Restoring Order: The US Army Experience with Occupation Operations, 1865-1952.” PhD Dissertation: Kansas State University, 2010.
Edelstein, David M. “Occupational Hazards: Why Military Occupations Succeed or Fail”, International Security, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Summer, 2004), 49-91.
Edelstein, David M. Occupational Hazards: Success and Failure in Military Occupation. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008.
“Enlisted Pay Chart 1922-1940,” Navy CyperSpace. Avail: https://www.navycs.com/charts/1922-enlisted-pay-chart.html [Accessed: 8 September 2018].
Evans, Richard J. “Prostitution, State, and Society in Imperial Germany,” Past & Present, No. 70 (1976), 106-129.
Faigman, David L. “The Battered Woman Syndrome and Self-Defense: A Legal and Empirical Dissent,” Virginia Law Review, Vol. 72, No. 3 (1986), 619-647.
Fischer, Conan. The Ruhr Crisis, 1923-1924. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Fraenkel, Ernst. Military Occupation and the Rule of Law: Occupation Government in the Rhineland, 1918-1923. London: Oxford University Press, 1944.
Gabriel, Ralph H. “American Experience with Military Government,” The American Historical Review, Vol. 49, No. 4 (1944), 630-643.
Gebhardt, Miriam. Crimes Unspoken: The Rape of German Women at the End of the Second World War. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2017.
Hartigan, Richard Shelly. Lieber’s Code and the Law of War. Chicago: Transaction Publishers, 1995.
Henke, Klaus-Dietmar. Die amerikanische Besetzung Deutschlands. München: R. Oldenbourg Verlag, 1995.
Hudson, Walter M. Army Diplomacy: American Military Occupation and Foreign Policy after World War II. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press, 2015.
“Irvin Leland Hunt”, The Hall of Valor Project. Avail: https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/17720 [Accessed: 4 September 2018].
Jackson, Simon and A. Dirk Moses. “Transformative Occupations in the Modern Middle East,” Humanity: An International Journal of Human Rights, Humanitarianism, and Development, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2017), 231-246.
Kehoe, Thomas J. “Control, Disempowerment, Fear, and Fantasy: Violent Criminality During the Early American Occupation of Germany, March-July 1945”, Australian Journal of Politics & History, Vol. 62, No. 4 (2016), 566-570.
Kehoe, Thomas J. and E. James Kehoe, “Crimes Committed by US Soldiers in Europe 1945-1946,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 47, No. 1 (Summer 2016), 53-84
Kehoe, Thomas J. and E. James Kehoe, “A Reply to Robert Dykstra’s ‘Evident Bias in Crimes Committed by US Soldiers in Europe 1945-1946’,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Winter 2017), 385-396.
Kovner, Sarah. Occupying Power: Sex Workers and Servicemen in Postwar Japan. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2012.
Kuhlman, Erika. “American Doughboys and German Fräuleins: Sexuality, Patriarchy, and Privilege in the American-Occupied Rhineland, 1918-1923,” The Journal of Military History, Vol. 71, No. 4 (2007), 1077-1106.
Langum, David J. Crossing Over the Line: Legislating Morality and the Mann Act. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1994.
Lilly, Robert. Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe During World War II. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
Linn, Brian McAllister. Guardians of Empire: The US Army and the Pacific, 1902 1940. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press, 1997.
Linn, Brian McAllister. The Echo of Battle: The Army’s Way of War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
Marcuse, Harold. “Historical Dollars-to-Marks Currency Conversion Page.” Avail: http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/marcuse/projects/currency.htm [Accessed: 8 September 2018].
McClelland, Mark. “‘Kissing Is A Symbol of Democracy!’ Dating, Democracy, and Romance in Occupied Japan, 1945-1952,” Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 19, No. 3 (2010), 508-535.
McDougall, Walter A. France’s Rhineland Policy, 1914-1924: The Last Bid for a Balance of Power in Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978.
Mueller, David A. “Civil Order and Governance as Military Responsibilities,” Joint Force Quarterly, Vol. 84 (2017), 43-50.
Nelson, Keith L. “The ‘Black Horror on the Rhine’: Race as a Factor in Post-World War I Diplomacy,” The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 42, No. 4 (Dec., 1970), 606-627.
Nelson, Keith L. Victors Divided: America and the Allies in Germany, 1918-1923. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975.
Nhan, Johnny. “Police Culture,” in The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, edited by J. S. Albanese. Avail: doi:10.1002/9781118517383.wbeccj371 [Accessed: 7 September 2018].
Pawley, Margaret. The Watch on the Rhine: The Military Occupation of the Rhineland, 1918-1930. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
Pivar, David J. “Cleansing the Nation: The War on Prostitution, 1917-21,” Prologue, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1980), 29-40.
Roos, Julia. “Nationalism, Racism, and Propaganda in Early Weimar Germany: Contradictions in the Campaign Against the ‘Black Horror on the Rhine’,” German History, Vol. 30, No. 1 (2012), 45-74.
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