Abusing Hugh Davis: Determining the Crime in a Seventeenth-Century American Morality Case
Abstract
In 1630, the Virginia court ordered Hugh Davis flogged for a moral transgression with an African. The case has been used to show Virginia’s abhorrence with miscegenation for one hundred years, starting with Carter Woodson in 1918. Yet the case has never been systematically analyzed, and it does not specify the sex of Hugh Davis’ partner. However, the case’s meaning would be quite different if his partner were a man instead of a woman. I argue that, even with several missing pieces of information, the sentence handed down to Hugh Davis makes more sense—both in terms of the hostile language the court employed and the actual punishment of a public flogging—if we view Davis as a case of sodomy instead of as a case of fornication.
References
Bibles:
King James Bible: http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/1611-Bible.
Tyndale Bible: Northwest Nazarene University’s Wesley Center, online at http://wesley.nnu.edu.
Wycliffe Bible: Northwest Nazarene University’s Wesley Center, online at http://wesley.nnu.edu.
Geneva Bible: http://www.genevabible.org.
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Berman, Harold J. “The Origins of Historical Jurisprudence: Coke, Selden, Hale,” The Yale Law Journal 103, no. 7 (1994): 1651-1738.
Billings, Warren M. ed., The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975).
Bodenhorn, Howard. “The Mulatto Advantage: The Biological Consequences of Complexion in Rural Antebellum Virginia,” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 33, no. 1 (2002): 21-46.
Breen, T. H. and Stephen Innes. Myne Own Ground: Race and Freedom on Virginia’s Eastern Shore, 1640-1676 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).
Brown, Kathleen. “’Changed… into the Fashion of a Man’: The Politics of Sexual Difference in a Seventeenth-Century Anglo-American Settlement,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 6, no. 2 (1995), 171-193.
Brown, Kathleen M. Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
Cave, Alfred A. Lethal Encounters: Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2011).
Coke, Sir Edward. The Third Part of the Institutes of the Laws of England: Concerning High Treason And Other Pleas of the Crown and Criminal Causes (London: E and Brooke, 1797).
Coleman, Arica. That The Blood Stay Pure: African Americans, Native Americans, and the Predicament of Race and Identity in Virginia (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2013).
Crompton, Louis. “Homosexuals and the Death Penalty in Colonial America,” Journal of Homosexuality 1 (1976): 277-293
Ellwood, Christopher. “A Singular Example of the Wrath of God: The Use of Sodom in Sixteenth-Century Exegesis,” Harvard Theological Review 98, no. 1 (2005): 67-93.
Eskridge, William N. Jr., “Noah’s Curse: How Religion Often Conflates Status, Belief, and Conduct to Resist Antidiscrimination Norms,” Georgia Law Review (Spring 2011):
Flenley, Ralph. “London and Foreign Merchants in the Reign of Henry VI,” English Historical Review 25, no. 100 (1910): 644-655.
Foster, Thomas A. “Introduction” Long Before Stonewall: Histories of Same-Sex Sexuality in Early America (New York: New York University Press, 2007).
Friedman, Lawrence J. and Arthur H. Shaffer, "The Conway Robinson Notes and Seventeenth-Century Virginia,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 78, no. 3 (1970) 259-267.
Galdwin, Lee A. “Tobacco and Sex: Some Factors Affecting Non-Marital Sexual Behavior in Colonial Virginia,” Journal of Social History 12, no. 1 (1978): 57-75.
Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997).
Greenberg, Douglas. “Crime, Law Enforcement and Social Control in Colonial America,” American Journal of Legal History 26, no. 4 (1982): 293-325.
Greer, George Cable Early Virginia Immigrants; http://www.evmedia.com/virginia/, accessed February 20, 2014.
Godbeer, Richard. Sexual Revolution in America, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
Goetz, Rebecca Anne The Baptism of Early Virginia: How Christianity Created Race, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).
Guasco, Michael. Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014).
Heinegg, Paul. “Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware” digitized from State Archives. http://www.freeafricanamericans.com/Stringer-Talbot.htm. Accessed 3 April 2012.
Hening, William Waller The Statues at Large: Being a Collection of all the Laws of Virginia, from the First Session of the Legislature in the year 1619 vol. 1 (New York: R&W&G Bartow, 1823).
Herrada, Giles. The Missing Myth: A New Vision of Same-Sex Love (New York: Select Books, 2013).
Herrup, Cynthia B. A House in Gross Disorder: Sex, Law, and the 2nd Earl of Castlehaven (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
Herrup, Cynthia B. “Finding the Bodies,” GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 5 (1999): 255-265.
Higginbotham, A. Leon. In the Matter of Color: The Colonial Period (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1980).
Higginbotham, A. Leon. Shades of Freedom: Racial Politics and Presumptions of the American Legal Process (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
Higginbotham, A. Leon and Barbara Kopytoff, “Racial Purity and Interracial Sex in the Law of Colonial and Antebellum Virginia,” Georgetown Law Journal (August, 1989 Westlaw): 77 GEOLJ 1967
Holder, Ann S. “What's Sex Got to Do with It? Race, Power, Citizenship, and ‘Intermediate Identities,’ in the Post-Emancipation United States," The Journal of African American History 93, no. 2 (2008): 153-173.
Holdsworth, William. “Sir Edward Coke,” The Cambridge Law Journal 5, no. 3 (1935): 332-346.
Jordan, Winthrop, D. “Modern Tensions and the Origins of American Slavery,” The Journal of Southern History 28, no. 1 (1962): 18-30.
Jordan, Winthrop D. White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968).
King, John N. “’The Light of Printing’: William Tyndale, John Foxe, John Day, and Early Modern Print Culture,” Renaissance Quarterly 54, no. 1 (2001): 52-85.
Lichtman, Allan J. White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Grove Press, 2008).
Lyons, Clare A. “Mapping an Atlantic Sexual Culture: Homoeroticism in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia,” William and Mary Quarterly 60, no. 1 (2003): 119-154.
Martel, Heather “Colonial Allure: Normal Homoeroticism and Sodomy in French and Timucuan Encounters in Sixteenth-Century Florida,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 22, no 1 (January 2013): 34-64.
Martinot, Steve. “Motherhood and the Invention of Race,” Hypatia 22, no. 2 (2007): 79-97.
McCartney, Martha. "Virginia's First Africans"; Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, The Planters of Colonial Virginia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1922).
McGrath, Alister E. In The Beginning: The Story of the King James Bible and How It Changed a Nation, a Language, and a Culture (New York: Doubleday of Random House, 2001).
McIlwaine, H. R. ed., Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia, 1622-32, 1670-76, with Notes and Excerpts from Original Council and General Court Records, Unto 1683, Now Lost, (Richmond, 1924).
Moller, Herbert. “Sex Composition and Correlated Culture Patterns of Colonial America,” William and Mary Quarterly 2, no. 2 (1945): 113-153.
Morgan, Edmond. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975).
Morgan, Edmond. “The First American Boom: Virginia 1618-1630,” William and Mary Quarterly 28, no. 2 (1971): 169-198.
Morris, Thomas D. "‘Villeinage... as It Existed in England, Reflects but Little Light on Our Subject:’ The Problem of the ‘Sources’ of Southern Slave Law,” The American Journal of Legal History, 32, no. 2 (1988): 95-137.
Most, Marguerite and Michael Chiorazzi, eds. Prestatehood Legal Materials: A Fifty-State Research Guide, Including New York City and the District of Columbia, Volume 2 (New York: Psychology Press of Rutledge, 2006).
Mumford, Kevin. “After Hugh: Statutory Race Segregation in Colonial America, 1630-1725,” The American Journal of Legal History 43, no. 3 (1999): 280-305.
Murrin, John M. “Things Fearful to Name: Bestiality in Colonial America,” Pennsylvania History 65 (1998): 8-43.
Nocentelli, Carmen. “The Erotics of Mercantile Imperialism: Cross-Cultural Requitedness in the Early Modern Period,” Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 8, no. 1 (2008): 134-152.
Nightingale, Pamela. “Capitalists, Craft and Constitutional Change in Late Fourteenth-Century London,” Past and Present 124 (August 1998): 3-35.
Oaks, Robert F. “’Things Fearful to Name’: Sodomy and Buggery in Seventeenth-Century New England,” Journal of Social History 12, no. 2 (1978): 269-281.
Pagan, John Ruston Anne Orthwood's Bastard: Sex and Law in Early Virginia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
Perry, David M. “A New Right Grounded in the Long History of Marriage, The Atlantic, June 26, 2015, https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/06/history-marriage-supreme-court/396443/ accessed on April 28, 2017.
Phillips, Cyrus E. IV, “Miscegenation: The Courts and the Constitution,” William and Mary Law Review 8 (1966): 133-142.
Pybus, Cassandra. “Bound for Botany Bay: John Martin’s Voyage to Australia” in Emma Christopher, Cassandra Pybus, and Marcus Rediker, eds., Many Middle Passages: Forced Migration and the Making of the Modern World (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA and London: University of California Press, 2007).
Reilly, Robert R. Making Gay Ok: How Rationalizing Homosexual Behavior is Changing Everything (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2014).
Reis, Elizabeth. “Impossible Hermaphrodites, 1620-1960,” Journal of American History 92, no. 2 (2005): 411-441.
Robertson, Stephen. “Shifting the Scene of the Crime: Sodomy and the American History of Sexual Violence,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 19, no. 2 (2010): 223-242.
Russell, Kathy, Midge Wilson, and Ronald Hall, The Color Complex: The Politics of Skin Color Among African Americans (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanivich, 1992), 11-12.
Seiler, William H. “The Anglican Parish Vestry in Colonial Virginia,” Journal of Southern History 22, no. 3 (1956): 310-337.
Sollors, Werner ed., Interracialism: Black-White Intermarriage in American History, Literature, and Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Spear, Jennifer M. “Race Matters in the Colonial South,” The Journal of Southern History 73, no. 3 (2007): 579-599.
Talley, Colin. “Gender and Male Same-Sex Erotic Behavior in British North America in the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 6, no. 3 (January 1996) 385-408.
Tarter, Brent. “Reflections on the Church of England in Colonial Virginia,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 112, no. 4 (2004): 347.
Tavárez, David. The Invisible War: Indigenous Devotions, Discipline, and Dissent in Colonial Mexico (Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2011): 338-371.
Thompson, Roger. “Attitudes toward Homosexuality in the Seventeenth-Century New England Colonies,” Journal of American Studies 23, no. 1 (1989) 27-40.
Trumbach, Randolph. “Sex, Gender, and Sexual Identity in Modern Culture: Male Sodomy and Female Prostitution in Enlightenment London,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 2, no. 2 (October 1991): 186-203.
Upchurch, Charles. “Liberal Exclusions and Sex Between Men in the Modern Era: Speculations on a Framework,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 19, no. 3 (September 2010) 409-431.
van der Meer, Theo. “Sodomy and its Discontents: Discourse, Desire, and the rise of a Same-Sex Proto-Something in the Early Modern Dutch Republic,” Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 33, no. 1 (Spring 2007): 41-67.
Wadlington, Walter. “The Loving Case: Virginia's Anti-Miscegenation Statute in Historical Perspective” Virginia Law Review 52, no. 7 (1966) 1189-1223.
Wichelns, Kathryn. “From the Scarlett Letter to Stonewall: Reading the 1629 Thomas(ine) Hall Case 1978-2009,” Early American Studies 2, no. 3 (2014): 500-523.
Willis, Alan Scot. “Symbolic History in the Cold War,” in Keith Harper, ed., Through a Glass Darkly: Contested Notions of Baptist Identity (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012).
Woggon, Harry A “A Biblical and Historical Study of Homosexuality,” Journal of Religion and Health 20, no. 2 (1981): 156-163.
Woodson, Carter G. “The Beginnings of the Miscegenation of the Whites and Blacks,” The Journal of Negro History 3, no. 4 (1918): 335-353.
Wright, David F. “Homosexuals or Prostitutes? The Meaning of ἀρσενοκοῑται (1 Cor. 6:9, 1 Tim. 1:10),” Vigiliae Christianae 38, no. 2 (1984): 125-153.
King James Bible: http://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/1611-Bible.
Tyndale Bible: Northwest Nazarene University’s Wesley Center, online at http://wesley.nnu.edu.
Wycliffe Bible: Northwest Nazarene University’s Wesley Center, online at http://wesley.nnu.edu.
Geneva Bible: http://www.genevabible.org.
Sources
_______Genealogy Filing cabinet, http://www.genfiles.com/bynum/john-baynham-c1570-16289-of-jamestown/ Accessed 3 April 2012.
_______Loving vs. Virginia (1967) Available online from Cornel University Law School, Legal Information Institute. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0388_0001_ZO.html#388_US_1n6 . Accessed 16 May 2012.
Balch, David L. ed., Homosexuality, Science, and the 'Plain Sense' of Scripture (Grand Rapids, Mich: William B. Eerdmans, 2000)
Berman, Harold J. “The Origins of Historical Jurisprudence: Coke, Selden, Hale,” The Yale Law Journal 103, no. 7 (1994): 1651-1738.
Billings, Warren M. ed., The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606-1689 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975).
Bodenhorn, Howard. “The Mulatto Advantage: The Biological Consequences of Complexion in Rural Antebellum Virginia,” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 33, no. 1 (2002): 21-46.
Breen, T. H. and Stephen Innes. Myne Own Ground: Race and Freedom on Virginia’s Eastern Shore, 1640-1676 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980).
Brown, Kathleen. “’Changed… into the Fashion of a Man’: The Politics of Sexual Difference in a Seventeenth-Century Anglo-American Settlement,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 6, no. 2 (1995), 171-193.
Brown, Kathleen M. Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
Cave, Alfred A. Lethal Encounters: Englishmen and Indians in Colonial Virginia (Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2011).
Coke, Sir Edward. The Third Part of the Institutes of the Laws of England: Concerning High Treason And Other Pleas of the Crown and Criminal Causes (London: E and Brooke, 1797).
Coleman, Arica. That The Blood Stay Pure: African Americans, Native Americans, and the Predicament of Race and Identity in Virginia (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2013).
Crompton, Louis. “Homosexuals and the Death Penalty in Colonial America,” Journal of Homosexuality 1 (1976): 277-293
Ellwood, Christopher. “A Singular Example of the Wrath of God: The Use of Sodom in Sixteenth-Century Exegesis,” Harvard Theological Review 98, no. 1 (2005): 67-93.
Eskridge, William N. Jr., “Noah’s Curse: How Religion Often Conflates Status, Belief, and Conduct to Resist Antidiscrimination Norms,” Georgia Law Review (Spring 2011):
Flenley, Ralph. “London and Foreign Merchants in the Reign of Henry VI,” English Historical Review 25, no. 100 (1910): 644-655.
Foster, Thomas A. “Introduction” Long Before Stonewall: Histories of Same-Sex Sexuality in Early America (New York: New York University Press, 2007).
Friedman, Lawrence J. and Arthur H. Shaffer, "The Conway Robinson Notes and Seventeenth-Century Virginia,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 78, no. 3 (1970) 259-267.
Galdwin, Lee A. “Tobacco and Sex: Some Factors Affecting Non-Marital Sexual Behavior in Colonial Virginia,” Journal of Social History 12, no. 1 (1978): 57-75.
Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997).
Greenberg, Douglas. “Crime, Law Enforcement and Social Control in Colonial America,” American Journal of Legal History 26, no. 4 (1982): 293-325.
Greer, George Cable Early Virginia Immigrants; http://www.evmedia.com/virginia/, accessed February 20, 2014.
Godbeer, Richard. Sexual Revolution in America, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002).
Goetz, Rebecca Anne The Baptism of Early Virginia: How Christianity Created Race, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012).
Guasco, Michael. Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014).
Heinegg, Paul. “Free African Americans of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware” digitized from State Archives. http://www.freeafricanamericans.com/Stringer-Talbot.htm. Accessed 3 April 2012.
Hening, William Waller The Statues at Large: Being a Collection of all the Laws of Virginia, from the First Session of the Legislature in the year 1619 vol. 1 (New York: R&W&G Bartow, 1823).
Herrada, Giles. The Missing Myth: A New Vision of Same-Sex Love (New York: Select Books, 2013).
Herrup, Cynthia B. A House in Gross Disorder: Sex, Law, and the 2nd Earl of Castlehaven (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).
Herrup, Cynthia B. “Finding the Bodies,” GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 5 (1999): 255-265.
Higginbotham, A. Leon. In the Matter of Color: The Colonial Period (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1980).
Higginbotham, A. Leon. Shades of Freedom: Racial Politics and Presumptions of the American Legal Process (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
Higginbotham, A. Leon and Barbara Kopytoff, “Racial Purity and Interracial Sex in the Law of Colonial and Antebellum Virginia,” Georgetown Law Journal (August, 1989 Westlaw): 77 GEOLJ 1967
Holder, Ann S. “What's Sex Got to Do with It? Race, Power, Citizenship, and ‘Intermediate Identities,’ in the Post-Emancipation United States," The Journal of African American History 93, no. 2 (2008): 153-173.
Holdsworth, William. “Sir Edward Coke,” The Cambridge Law Journal 5, no. 3 (1935): 332-346.
Jordan, Winthrop, D. “Modern Tensions and the Origins of American Slavery,” The Journal of Southern History 28, no. 1 (1962): 18-30.
Jordan, Winthrop D. White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968).
King, John N. “’The Light of Printing’: William Tyndale, John Foxe, John Day, and Early Modern Print Culture,” Renaissance Quarterly 54, no. 1 (2001): 52-85.
Lichtman, Allan J. White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Grove Press, 2008).
Lyons, Clare A. “Mapping an Atlantic Sexual Culture: Homoeroticism in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia,” William and Mary Quarterly 60, no. 1 (2003): 119-154.
Martel, Heather “Colonial Allure: Normal Homoeroticism and Sodomy in French and Timucuan Encounters in Sixteenth-Century Florida,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 22, no 1 (January 2013): 34-64.
Martinot, Steve. “Motherhood and the Invention of Race,” Hypatia 22, no. 2 (2007): 79-97.
McCartney, Martha. "Virginia's First Africans"; Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, The Planters of Colonial Virginia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1922).
McGrath, Alister E. In The Beginning: The Story of the King James Bible and How It Changed a Nation, a Language, and a Culture (New York: Doubleday of Random House, 2001).
McIlwaine, H. R. ed., Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia, 1622-32, 1670-76, with Notes and Excerpts from Original Council and General Court Records, Unto 1683, Now Lost, (Richmond, 1924).
Moller, Herbert. “Sex Composition and Correlated Culture Patterns of Colonial America,” William and Mary Quarterly 2, no. 2 (1945): 113-153.
Morgan, Edmond. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975).
Morgan, Edmond. “The First American Boom: Virginia 1618-1630,” William and Mary Quarterly 28, no. 2 (1971): 169-198.
Morris, Thomas D. "‘Villeinage... as It Existed in England, Reflects but Little Light on Our Subject:’ The Problem of the ‘Sources’ of Southern Slave Law,” The American Journal of Legal History, 32, no. 2 (1988): 95-137.
Most, Marguerite and Michael Chiorazzi, eds. Prestatehood Legal Materials: A Fifty-State Research Guide, Including New York City and the District of Columbia, Volume 2 (New York: Psychology Press of Rutledge, 2006).
Mumford, Kevin. “After Hugh: Statutory Race Segregation in Colonial America, 1630-1725,” The American Journal of Legal History 43, no. 3 (1999): 280-305.
Murrin, John M. “Things Fearful to Name: Bestiality in Colonial America,” Pennsylvania History 65 (1998): 8-43.
Nocentelli, Carmen. “The Erotics of Mercantile Imperialism: Cross-Cultural Requitedness in the Early Modern Period,” Journal for Early Modern Cultural Studies 8, no. 1 (2008): 134-152.
Nightingale, Pamela. “Capitalists, Craft and Constitutional Change in Late Fourteenth-Century London,” Past and Present 124 (August 1998): 3-35.
Oaks, Robert F. “’Things Fearful to Name’: Sodomy and Buggery in Seventeenth-Century New England,” Journal of Social History 12, no. 2 (1978): 269-281.
Pagan, John Ruston Anne Orthwood's Bastard: Sex and Law in Early Virginia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
Perry, David M. “A New Right Grounded in the Long History of Marriage, The Atlantic, June 26, 2015, https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/06/history-marriage-supreme-court/396443/ accessed on April 28, 2017.
Phillips, Cyrus E. IV, “Miscegenation: The Courts and the Constitution,” William and Mary Law Review 8 (1966): 133-142.
Pybus, Cassandra. “Bound for Botany Bay: John Martin’s Voyage to Australia” in Emma Christopher, Cassandra Pybus, and Marcus Rediker, eds., Many Middle Passages: Forced Migration and the Making of the Modern World (Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA and London: University of California Press, 2007).
Reilly, Robert R. Making Gay Ok: How Rationalizing Homosexual Behavior is Changing Everything (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2014).
Reis, Elizabeth. “Impossible Hermaphrodites, 1620-1960,” Journal of American History 92, no. 2 (2005): 411-441.
Robertson, Stephen. “Shifting the Scene of the Crime: Sodomy and the American History of Sexual Violence,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 19, no. 2 (2010): 223-242.
Russell, Kathy, Midge Wilson, and Ronald Hall, The Color Complex: The Politics of Skin Color Among African Americans (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanivich, 1992), 11-12.
Seiler, William H. “The Anglican Parish Vestry in Colonial Virginia,” Journal of Southern History 22, no. 3 (1956): 310-337.
Sollors, Werner ed., Interracialism: Black-White Intermarriage in American History, Literature, and Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Spear, Jennifer M. “Race Matters in the Colonial South,” The Journal of Southern History 73, no. 3 (2007): 579-599.
Talley, Colin. “Gender and Male Same-Sex Erotic Behavior in British North America in the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 6, no. 3 (January 1996) 385-408.
Tarter, Brent. “Reflections on the Church of England in Colonial Virginia,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 112, no. 4 (2004): 347.
Tavárez, David. The Invisible War: Indigenous Devotions, Discipline, and Dissent in Colonial Mexico (Palo Alto, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2011): 338-371.
Thompson, Roger. “Attitudes toward Homosexuality in the Seventeenth-Century New England Colonies,” Journal of American Studies 23, no. 1 (1989) 27-40.
Trumbach, Randolph. “Sex, Gender, and Sexual Identity in Modern Culture: Male Sodomy and Female Prostitution in Enlightenment London,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 2, no. 2 (October 1991): 186-203.
Upchurch, Charles. “Liberal Exclusions and Sex Between Men in the Modern Era: Speculations on a Framework,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 19, no. 3 (September 2010) 409-431.
van der Meer, Theo. “Sodomy and its Discontents: Discourse, Desire, and the rise of a Same-Sex Proto-Something in the Early Modern Dutch Republic,” Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 33, no. 1 (Spring 2007): 41-67.
Wadlington, Walter. “The Loving Case: Virginia's Anti-Miscegenation Statute in Historical Perspective” Virginia Law Review 52, no. 7 (1966) 1189-1223.
Wichelns, Kathryn. “From the Scarlett Letter to Stonewall: Reading the 1629 Thomas(ine) Hall Case 1978-2009,” Early American Studies 2, no. 3 (2014): 500-523.
Willis, Alan Scot. “Symbolic History in the Cold War,” in Keith Harper, ed., Through a Glass Darkly: Contested Notions of Baptist Identity (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2012).
Woggon, Harry A “A Biblical and Historical Study of Homosexuality,” Journal of Religion and Health 20, no. 2 (1981): 156-163.
Woodson, Carter G. “The Beginnings of the Miscegenation of the Whites and Blacks,” The Journal of Negro History 3, no. 4 (1918): 335-353.
Wright, David F. “Homosexuals or Prostitutes? The Meaning of ἀρσενοκοῑται (1 Cor. 6:9, 1 Tim. 1:10),” Vigiliae Christianae 38, no. 2 (1984): 125-153.
