Collective Amusement? Sexual Violence as Social Performance on the Eastern Front
Abstract
The point of departure for this article is a photograph from the National Archives in Romania taken by a Wehrmacht soldier somewhere on the Eastern front during the Second World War. It shows a group of fifteen young German soldiers standing in a semi-circle and laughing as one of their comrades’ emulates a sex act on what appears to be the body of an unidentified woman. What is particularly striking and disturbing about this photo is that the violence is not evident at first glance as the image manages to convey the impression of “fun” following the gaze of the male harassers. This article proposes three alternative readings of the photograph: the first section examines photo as a material source of a social performative reality, decoding social practices, individual agencies, and gendered group dynamics within the violent moment depicted in the photograph. Part two embeds the photographic source within its larger historical and geographic contexts of war in the Nazi-occupied East. This renders the image a lens through which to examine power relations between male soldiers at war and the local civilian population. However, it also necessitates additional detailed contextualization the Wehrmacht’s military culture and mission in Europe, particularly on the Eastern front. The third section revisits the photograph by interrogating it for its autonomous meanings. Reflecting on the many layers of what one might call a “colonial selfie,” the article addresses Evans’ claim that it is not the “reality” the photo gestures towards that is important, but rather what the viewers see in it. This, of course, raises question about audience and timing: viewers would likely approach this trophy photo from myriad perspectives depending on factors such as the temporal, geographic, and intellectual contexts.
References
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Isabel Heinemann, „Rasse, Siedlung, deutsches Blut“ Das Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt der SS und die rassenpolitische Neuordnung Europas (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2003).
Elizabeth D. Heineman, “Sexuality and Nazism: The Double Unspeakable?,” Journal of the History of Sexuality, 11 no. 1-2 (2002), 22-66.
Doris Bergen, “Sexual Violence in the Holocaust: Unique or Typical?,” in Lessons and Legacies, The Holocaust in International Perspective, ed. Dagmar Herzog (Evanston/Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 179-200.
Regina Mühlhäuser, Eroberungen. Sexuelle Gewalttaten und intime Beziehungen deutsche Soldaten in der Sowjetunion, 1941-1945 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2010).
Maren Röger, Kriegsbeziehungen. Intimität, Gewalt und Prostitution im besetzten Polen 1939 bis 1945 (Frankfurt a. Main: Fischer, 2015), 9-26.
Katharina Menzel-Ahr, Lee Miller: Kriegskorrespondentin für Vogue – Fotografien aus Deutschland 1945 (Marburg: Jonas Verlag, 2005), 196–200.
Anthony Penrose, Lee Miller’s War. Beyond D-Day (London: Thames & Hudson, 2014).
Joanna Bourke, An Intimate History of Killing: Face-to-Face Killing in 20th Century Warfare, (New York: Basic Books 1999).
Matthew Brower, Trophy Shots: Early North American Photographs of Nonhuman Animals and the Display of Masculine Prowess, Society & Animals, vol. 13, issue 1 (2005), 13 – 32.
Jennifer V. Evans, “Seeing Subjectivity: Erotic Photography and the Optics of Desire,” American Historical Review, 18, no. 2 (2013), 430–462, 432.
Hannes Heer, Klaus Naumann, War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II 1941–1944 (New York: Berghahn, 2000).
Jochen Böhler, Auftakt zum Vernichtungskrieg : Die Wehrmacht in Polen 1939 (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer 2006.
Doris Bergen, War & Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust (Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield, 2003).
Jürgen Matthäus, “Operation Barbarossa and the Onset of the Holocaust,” in The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942, ed. Christopher Browning and Jürgen Matthäus (Lincoln/Jerusalem: Nebraska University Press 2004), 242-309.
Judith Butler, “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory,” Theatre Journal, 40, no 4 (1988), 519531.
Koloma Beck Teresa, “The Eye of the Beholder: Violence as a Social Process,” International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 5, no. 2 (2011), 345-356.
Catherine MacKinnon, “Sexuality, Pornography and Method: ‘Pleasure under Patriarchy’,” Ethics 99, no. 2 (1989): 314-346, 325, 328.
Aaron Belkin, Bring Me Men, Military Masculinity and the Benign façade of American Empire, 1898-2001 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).
Cynthia Cockburn, ”‘Why Are You Doing This to Me ?’Identity, Power and Sexual Violence in War,” Sexuality, Gender, and Power. Intersectional and Transnational Perspectives, ed.Anna G. Jonasdottir, Valerie Bryson, Kathleen B. Jones (New York: Routledge, 2011), 189-204.
Thomas Kühne, Kameradschaft. Die Soldaten des nationalsozialistischen Krieges und das 20. Jahrhundert (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 2006).
Thomas Kühne, Belonging and Genocide. Hitler’s Community, 1918-1945 (New Haven, Yale University Press, 2010).
Thomas Kühne, “The Pleasure of Terror : Belonging through Genocide,” in Pleasure and Power in Nazi Germany, ed. Pamela E. Swett, Corey Ross, and Fabrice d’Almeida (Houndmills, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 234-255, 240.
Sönke Neitzel and Harald Welzer, Soldaten. Protokolle vom Kämpfen, Töten und Sterben (Frankfurt a. Main: Fischer, 2011), 125/126.
Harald Welzer, Täter. Wie aus ganz normalen Menschen Massenmörder werden (Frankfurt a. Main: Fischer, 2005), 161.
Nahoum-Grappe, „L’usage politique de la cruauté: l’épuration ethnique (ex-Yougoslavie, 1991-1995),“ in De la violence, ed. Françoise Hértiter (Paris: Odile Jacob, 1996) 273-323.
Christian Ingrao, “Sociabilité et violence. Rituels de camaraderie dans les Einsatzgruppen,” in Des gestes en histoire formes et significations des gestualités médicales, ed. Ambroise-Rendu A, Edelman N., D’Almeida F. (Paris: Seli Arslan, 2006), 184-193; Kühne, The Pleasure of Terror, 240/241.
R.W. Connell, “Swots and Wimps: The Interplay of Masculinity and Education,” Oxford Review of Education, vol. 15, no. 3 (1989), 291-303.
R. W. Connell , “The Social Organization of Masculinity,” in, Connell R. W., Masculinities (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press 2005 (1995), 67-86.
Raewyn Connell and Messerschmidt James W., “Hegemonic masculinity: rethinking the concept », Gender and Society 19, no. 6 (2005), 829-859, 847.
Yonson Ahn, “‘Taming Soldiers’: The Gender Politics of Japanease Soldiers in Total War,” ed. Jie-Hyun Lim & Karen Petrone, Gender and Mass Dictatorship. Global Perspectives (Palgrave Macmillan: Houndmills Basingstoke, 2010), 213-233.
Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
Etan Bloom, “Towards a Theory of the Modern Hebrew Handshake,” in Jewish Masculinities: German Jews, Gender, and History, ed. Benjamin Maria Baader, Sharon Gillerman, Paul Lerner (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 2012), 152-185.
Hannes Heer and Uwe Naumann: War of Extermination. The German Military in World War II 1941-1944 (NewYork: Berghahn Books, 2000).
Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord: die Einsatzgruppe D in der südlichen Sowjetunion 1941-1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003).
Christian Ingrao, Believe and destroy: intellectuals in the SS war machine, translated by Andrew Brown (Cambridge: Polity, 2013, French édition 2010).
Waitman Wade Beorn, Marching into the Darkness. The Wehrmacht and the Holocaust in Belarus (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2014).
Ronald Smelser and Edward Davies, The Myth of the Eastern Front. The Nazi-Soviet War in American Popular Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
Robert G. Moeller, War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal German Republic of Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
Alf Lüdtke, “Coming to Terms with the Past: Illusions of Remembering, Ways of Forgetting Nazism in West Germany,” Journal of Modern History, 65, 3 (1993), 542-572.
Claire Trojan, L’identité interdite. Les expulsés allemands en RDA, 1945-1953, (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2014).
Michaela Christ, Maja Suderland (dir.), Soziologie und Nationalsozialismus. Positionen, Debatten, Perspektiven (Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 2014).
Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men. Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: Harper Collins, 1992).
Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, Besucher einer Ausstellung : die Ausstellung "Vernichtungskrieg, Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944" in Interview und Gespräch (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1998).
Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, Eine Ausstellung und ihre Folgen: Zur Rezeption der Ausstellung "Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1999).
Ruth Beckermann, Jenseits des Krieges (East of War), documentary (with English sub-titles), Austria 1996.
Sönke Neitzel and Harald Welzer, Soldaten. Protokolle vom Kämpfen, Töten und Sterben (Frankfurt a. Main: Fischer 2011).
Sönke Neitzel, Tapping Hitler's Generals: Transcripts of Secret Conversations, 1942-45, (Barnsley, rontline Books, 2007).
Sönke Neitzel, Harald Welzer, Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing and Dying: The Secret Second World War Tapes of German POWS, (Yale: Yale University Press, 2013).
David Furber, Wendy Lower: Colonialism and Genocide in Nazi-occupied Poland and Ukraine, in Dirk Moses, Empire, Colony, Genocide. Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2008), 372-402.
Dieter Pohl, Von der „Judenpolitik“ zum Judenmord. Der Distrikt Lublin des Generalgouvernements 1939–1944 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1993).
Czesław Madajczyk (ed.), Vom Generalplan Ost zum Generalsiedlungsplan (Munich: DE GRUYTER, 1994); Mechtild Rössler/Sabine Schleiermacher (ed.), Der “Generalplan Ost.” Hauptlinien der nationalsozialistischen Planungs- und Vernichtungspolitik (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1993).
Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction. The Making and Breaking of Nazi Economy (New York : Penguin 2006).
Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, Verbrechen der Wehrmacht. Dimensionen des Vernichtungskrieges 1941-1944. Ausstellungskatalog (Hamburg, Hamburger Edition 2002).
Gisela Bock, “Frauen und Geschlechterbeziehungen in der nationalsozialistischen Rassenpolitik,” Nach Osten: Verdeckte Spuren nationalsozialistischer Verbrechen, ed. Theresa Wobbe (Frankfurt/Main: Verlag Neue Kritik, 1992), 126-130.
Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger. An analysis of concept of pollution and taboo (London/New York: Routledge, 2002 first published 1966).
Gabriele Czarowski, “Women’s crimes, state crimes: abortion in Nazi Germany,” in Gender and Crime in Modern Europe, ed. Margaret L. Arnot, Cornelie Usborne (London/New York: UCL Press, 1999), 238-256.
Birgit Beck, Sexual Violence and Its Prosexution by Courts Martial of the Wehrmacht,” A World at Total War. Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937-1945, ed. Roger Chickering et.al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2005), p. 317-331
Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord. Die Einsatzgruppe D in der südlichen Sowjetunion 1941-1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003).
Wendy Jo Gertjejanssen, Heroes, Survivors. Sexual Violence on the Eastern Front during World War II, unpublished dissertation (PhD), University of Minnesota 2004.
Regina Mühlhäuser, “Eine Frage der Ehre. Anmerkungen zur Sexualität deutscher Soldaten während des Zweiten Weltkrieges,” in Ideologie und Moral im nationalsozialismus, eds. Wolfgang Bialas and Lothar Fritze (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014), 153-174.
Klaus-Michael Mallmann, Volker Riess, Wolfram Pyta (eds.), Deutscher Osten 1939–1945. Der Weltanschauungskrieg in Photos und Texten (Darmstadt: Wissenschafliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003).
Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord. Die Einsatzgruppe D in der südlichen Sowjetunion 1941-1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003).
Petra Bopp, Fremde im Visier: Fotoalben aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg (Bielefeld: Kerber, 2009); see also Peter Osborne, Traveling Light : Photography, Travel, and Visual Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000).
Petra Bopp, “Images of Violence in Wehrmacht Soldiers’ Private Photo Albums,” in Violence and Visibility in Modern History, edited by Jürgen Martschukat, and Silvan Niedermeier (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 181-197, 18.
Silvan Niedermeier, “Imperial Narratives: Reading US soldiers' photo albums of the Philippine–American War,” Rethinking History: The Journal of Theory and Practice, 18, no. 1 (2014), 28-49.
Katrin Tiidenberg and Edgar Gómez Cruz, Selfies, Image and the Re-making of the Body, Body&Society, 2015, 1-26.
Klaus Latzel, “Tourismus und Gewalt: Kriegswahrnehmungen in Feldpostbriefen,” in Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann (eds.), Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht, 1941 bis 1944 (Hamburg, Hamburger Edition 1995), 447-459.
Elizabeth Harvey, “Seeing the World: Photography, Photojournalism and Visual Pleasure in the Third Reich,” in Pleasure and Power in Nazi Germany, ed. Pamela E. Swett, Corey Ross, and Fabrice d’Almeida (Houndmills, Palgrave Macmillan 2011), 177-204.
Klaus-Michael Mallmann, Volker Riess, Wolfram Pyta (eds.), Deutscher Osten 1939–1945. Der Weltanschauungskrieg in Photos und Texten (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003).
Matthew Brower, Trophy Shots: Early North American Photographs of Nonhuman Animals and the Display of Masculine Prowess, Society & Animals, vol. 13, issue 1 (2005), 13 – 32, 23.
Catherine MacKinnon, “Sexuality, Pornography and Method: ‘Pleasure under Patriarchy’,” Ethics 99, no. 2 (1989): 314-346, 321.
Elissa Mailänder, Female SS Guards and Workaday Violence. The Majdanek Concerntration Camp, 1942-1944 (Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2015).
Jacques Sémelin, “Introduction: Extreme Violence: Can We Understand It?,” International Social Science Journal, 17 no. 54 (2002): 429–431.
J. R. Ryan, Hunting with the camera: Photography, wildlife and colonialism in Africa. In C. Wilbert & C. Philo (eds.), Animal spaces, beastly places (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 203-221.
Joanna Bourke, “The Killing Frenzy. Wartime Narratives of Enemy Action”, in: Alf Lüdtke/Bernd Weisbrod, No Man’s Land of Violence. Extreme Wars in the 20th Century (Göttingen: Wallstein Verlag, 2006), 101-125..
Michael Bakthin, Rabelais and His World, transl. H. Iswolsky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1985).
Janina Struk, Private Pictures: Soldiers’ Inside View of War (London: I.B. Tauris, 2011).
Pierre Bourdieu, Photography: A Middle-Brow Art (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990).
Isabel Heinemann, „Rasse, Siedlung, deutsches Blut“ Das Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt der SS und die rassenpolitische Neuordnung Europas (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2003).
Elizabeth D. Heineman, “Sexuality and Nazism: The Double Unspeakable?,” Journal of the History of Sexuality, 11 no. 1-2 (2002), 22-66.
Doris Bergen, “Sexual Violence in the Holocaust: Unique or Typical?,” in Lessons and Legacies, The Holocaust in International Perspective, ed. Dagmar Herzog (Evanston/Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 179-200.
Regina Mühlhäuser, Eroberungen. Sexuelle Gewalttaten und intime Beziehungen deutsche Soldaten in der Sowjetunion, 1941-1945 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2010).
Maren Röger, Kriegsbeziehungen. Intimität, Gewalt und Prostitution im besetzten Polen 1939 bis 1945 (Frankfurt a. Main: Fischer, 2015), 9-26.
Katharina Menzel-Ahr, Lee Miller: Kriegskorrespondentin für Vogue – Fotografien aus Deutschland 1945 (Marburg: Jonas Verlag, 2005), 196–200.
Anthony Penrose, Lee Miller’s War. Beyond D-Day (London: Thames & Hudson, 2014).
Joanna Bourke, An Intimate History of Killing: Face-to-Face Killing in 20th Century Warfare, (New York: Basic Books 1999).
Matthew Brower, Trophy Shots: Early North American Photographs of Nonhuman Animals and the Display of Masculine Prowess, Society & Animals, vol. 13, issue 1 (2005), 13 – 32.
Jennifer V. Evans, “Seeing Subjectivity: Erotic Photography and the Optics of Desire,” American Historical Review, 18, no. 2 (2013), 430–462, 432.
Hannes Heer, Klaus Naumann, War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II 1941–1944 (New York: Berghahn, 2000).
Jochen Böhler, Auftakt zum Vernichtungskrieg : Die Wehrmacht in Polen 1939 (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer 2006.
Doris Bergen, War & Genocide: A Concise History of the Holocaust (Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield, 2003).
Jürgen Matthäus, “Operation Barbarossa and the Onset of the Holocaust,” in The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939 – March 1942, ed. Christopher Browning and Jürgen Matthäus (Lincoln/Jerusalem: Nebraska University Press 2004), 242-309.
Judith Butler, “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory,” Theatre Journal, 40, no 4 (1988), 519531.
Koloma Beck Teresa, “The Eye of the Beholder: Violence as a Social Process,” International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 5, no. 2 (2011), 345-356.
Catherine MacKinnon, “Sexuality, Pornography and Method: ‘Pleasure under Patriarchy’,” Ethics 99, no. 2 (1989): 314-346, 325, 328.
Aaron Belkin, Bring Me Men, Military Masculinity and the Benign façade of American Empire, 1898-2001 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012).
Cynthia Cockburn, ”‘Why Are You Doing This to Me ?’Identity, Power and Sexual Violence in War,” Sexuality, Gender, and Power. Intersectional and Transnational Perspectives, ed.Anna G. Jonasdottir, Valerie Bryson, Kathleen B. Jones (New York: Routledge, 2011), 189-204.
Thomas Kühne, Kameradschaft. Die Soldaten des nationalsozialistischen Krieges und das 20. Jahrhundert (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 2006).
Thomas Kühne, Belonging and Genocide. Hitler’s Community, 1918-1945 (New Haven, Yale University Press, 2010).
Thomas Kühne, “The Pleasure of Terror : Belonging through Genocide,” in Pleasure and Power in Nazi Germany, ed. Pamela E. Swett, Corey Ross, and Fabrice d’Almeida (Houndmills, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 234-255, 240.
Sönke Neitzel and Harald Welzer, Soldaten. Protokolle vom Kämpfen, Töten und Sterben (Frankfurt a. Main: Fischer, 2011), 125/126.
Harald Welzer, Täter. Wie aus ganz normalen Menschen Massenmörder werden (Frankfurt a. Main: Fischer, 2005), 161.
Nahoum-Grappe, „L’usage politique de la cruauté: l’épuration ethnique (ex-Yougoslavie, 1991-1995),“ in De la violence, ed. Françoise Hértiter (Paris: Odile Jacob, 1996) 273-323.
Christian Ingrao, “Sociabilité et violence. Rituels de camaraderie dans les Einsatzgruppen,” in Des gestes en histoire formes et significations des gestualités médicales, ed. Ambroise-Rendu A, Edelman N., D’Almeida F. (Paris: Seli Arslan, 2006), 184-193; Kühne, The Pleasure of Terror, 240/241.
R.W. Connell, “Swots and Wimps: The Interplay of Masculinity and Education,” Oxford Review of Education, vol. 15, no. 3 (1989), 291-303.
R. W. Connell , “The Social Organization of Masculinity,” in, Connell R. W., Masculinities (Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press 2005 (1995), 67-86.
Raewyn Connell and Messerschmidt James W., “Hegemonic masculinity: rethinking the concept », Gender and Society 19, no. 6 (2005), 829-859, 847.
Yonson Ahn, “‘Taming Soldiers’: The Gender Politics of Japanease Soldiers in Total War,” ed. Jie-Hyun Lim & Karen Petrone, Gender and Mass Dictatorship. Global Perspectives (Palgrave Macmillan: Houndmills Basingstoke, 2010), 213-233.
Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993).
Etan Bloom, “Towards a Theory of the Modern Hebrew Handshake,” in Jewish Masculinities: German Jews, Gender, and History, ed. Benjamin Maria Baader, Sharon Gillerman, Paul Lerner (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 2012), 152-185.
Hannes Heer and Uwe Naumann: War of Extermination. The German Military in World War II 1941-1944 (NewYork: Berghahn Books, 2000).
Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord: die Einsatzgruppe D in der südlichen Sowjetunion 1941-1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003).
Christian Ingrao, Believe and destroy: intellectuals in the SS war machine, translated by Andrew Brown (Cambridge: Polity, 2013, French édition 2010).
Waitman Wade Beorn, Marching into the Darkness. The Wehrmacht and the Holocaust in Belarus (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2014).
Ronald Smelser and Edward Davies, The Myth of the Eastern Front. The Nazi-Soviet War in American Popular Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
Robert G. Moeller, War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal German Republic of Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
Alf Lüdtke, “Coming to Terms with the Past: Illusions of Remembering, Ways of Forgetting Nazism in West Germany,” Journal of Modern History, 65, 3 (1993), 542-572.
Claire Trojan, L’identité interdite. Les expulsés allemands en RDA, 1945-1953, (Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2014).
Michaela Christ, Maja Suderland (dir.), Soziologie und Nationalsozialismus. Positionen, Debatten, Perspektiven (Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp, 2014).
Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men. Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland (New York: Harper Collins, 1992).
Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, Besucher einer Ausstellung : die Ausstellung "Vernichtungskrieg, Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944" in Interview und Gespräch (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1998).
Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, Eine Ausstellung und ihre Folgen: Zur Rezeption der Ausstellung "Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht 1941 bis 1944 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1999).
Ruth Beckermann, Jenseits des Krieges (East of War), documentary (with English sub-titles), Austria 1996.
Sönke Neitzel and Harald Welzer, Soldaten. Protokolle vom Kämpfen, Töten und Sterben (Frankfurt a. Main: Fischer 2011).
Sönke Neitzel, Tapping Hitler's Generals: Transcripts of Secret Conversations, 1942-45, (Barnsley, rontline Books, 2007).
Sönke Neitzel, Harald Welzer, Soldaten: On Fighting, Killing and Dying: The Secret Second World War Tapes of German POWS, (Yale: Yale University Press, 2013).
David Furber, Wendy Lower: Colonialism and Genocide in Nazi-occupied Poland and Ukraine, in Dirk Moses, Empire, Colony, Genocide. Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2008), 372-402.
Dieter Pohl, Von der „Judenpolitik“ zum Judenmord. Der Distrikt Lublin des Generalgouvernements 1939–1944 (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1993).
Czesław Madajczyk (ed.), Vom Generalplan Ost zum Generalsiedlungsplan (Munich: DE GRUYTER, 1994); Mechtild Rössler/Sabine Schleiermacher (ed.), Der “Generalplan Ost.” Hauptlinien der nationalsozialistischen Planungs- und Vernichtungspolitik (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1993).
Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction. The Making and Breaking of Nazi Economy (New York : Penguin 2006).
Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, Verbrechen der Wehrmacht. Dimensionen des Vernichtungskrieges 1941-1944. Ausstellungskatalog (Hamburg, Hamburger Edition 2002).
Gisela Bock, “Frauen und Geschlechterbeziehungen in der nationalsozialistischen Rassenpolitik,” Nach Osten: Verdeckte Spuren nationalsozialistischer Verbrechen, ed. Theresa Wobbe (Frankfurt/Main: Verlag Neue Kritik, 1992), 126-130.
Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger. An analysis of concept of pollution and taboo (London/New York: Routledge, 2002 first published 1966).
Gabriele Czarowski, “Women’s crimes, state crimes: abortion in Nazi Germany,” in Gender and Crime in Modern Europe, ed. Margaret L. Arnot, Cornelie Usborne (London/New York: UCL Press, 1999), 238-256.
Birgit Beck, Sexual Violence and Its Prosexution by Courts Martial of the Wehrmacht,” A World at Total War. Global Conflict and the Politics of Destruction, 1937-1945, ed. Roger Chickering et.al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2005), p. 317-331
Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord. Die Einsatzgruppe D in der südlichen Sowjetunion 1941-1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003).
Wendy Jo Gertjejanssen, Heroes, Survivors. Sexual Violence on the Eastern Front during World War II, unpublished dissertation (PhD), University of Minnesota 2004.
Regina Mühlhäuser, “Eine Frage der Ehre. Anmerkungen zur Sexualität deutscher Soldaten während des Zweiten Weltkrieges,” in Ideologie und Moral im nationalsozialismus, eds. Wolfgang Bialas and Lothar Fritze (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014), 153-174.
Klaus-Michael Mallmann, Volker Riess, Wolfram Pyta (eds.), Deutscher Osten 1939–1945. Der Weltanschauungskrieg in Photos und Texten (Darmstadt: Wissenschafliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003).
Andrej Angrick, Besatzungspolitik und Massenmord. Die Einsatzgruppe D in der südlichen Sowjetunion 1941-1943 (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2003).
Petra Bopp, Fremde im Visier: Fotoalben aus dem Zweiten Weltkrieg (Bielefeld: Kerber, 2009); see also Peter Osborne, Traveling Light : Photography, Travel, and Visual Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000).
Petra Bopp, “Images of Violence in Wehrmacht Soldiers’ Private Photo Albums,” in Violence and Visibility in Modern History, edited by Jürgen Martschukat, and Silvan Niedermeier (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 181-197, 18.
Silvan Niedermeier, “Imperial Narratives: Reading US soldiers' photo albums of the Philippine–American War,” Rethinking History: The Journal of Theory and Practice, 18, no. 1 (2014), 28-49.
Katrin Tiidenberg and Edgar Gómez Cruz, Selfies, Image and the Re-making of the Body, Body&Society, 2015, 1-26.
Klaus Latzel, “Tourismus und Gewalt: Kriegswahrnehmungen in Feldpostbriefen,” in Hannes Heer and Klaus Naumann (eds.), Vernichtungskrieg. Verbrechen der Wehrmacht, 1941 bis 1944 (Hamburg, Hamburger Edition 1995), 447-459.
Elizabeth Harvey, “Seeing the World: Photography, Photojournalism and Visual Pleasure in the Third Reich,” in Pleasure and Power in Nazi Germany, ed. Pamela E. Swett, Corey Ross, and Fabrice d’Almeida (Houndmills, Palgrave Macmillan 2011), 177-204.
Klaus-Michael Mallmann, Volker Riess, Wolfram Pyta (eds.), Deutscher Osten 1939–1945. Der Weltanschauungskrieg in Photos und Texten (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003).
Matthew Brower, Trophy Shots: Early North American Photographs of Nonhuman Animals and the Display of Masculine Prowess, Society & Animals, vol. 13, issue 1 (2005), 13 – 32, 23.
Catherine MacKinnon, “Sexuality, Pornography and Method: ‘Pleasure under Patriarchy’,” Ethics 99, no. 2 (1989): 314-346, 321.
Elissa Mailänder, Female SS Guards and Workaday Violence. The Majdanek Concerntration Camp, 1942-1944 (Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2015).
Jacques Sémelin, “Introduction: Extreme Violence: Can We Understand It?,” International Social Science Journal, 17 no. 54 (2002): 429–431.
J. R. Ryan, Hunting with the camera: Photography, wildlife and colonialism in Africa. In C. Wilbert & C. Philo (eds.), Animal spaces, beastly places (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 203-221.
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2018-02-01
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